Trailing the Written Word the Art of Writing Among Chinas Ethnic Minorities
Continuing professional education
Glossary of terms relating to ethnicity and race: for reflection and debate
Abstract
This glossary focuses on the concepts and terminology used in the study of the wellness of minority ethnic and racial groups. It is hoped that it will stimulate debate on this field of study then that an internationally applicative glossary may emerge.
- glossary
- ethnicity
- race
- terminology
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- glossary
- ethnicity
- race
- terminology
In rising to the editor's claiming to write this glossary I am conscious that I am summarising and reigniting longstanding controversies. This paper comprises a personal viewpoint, a summary of the current position, and a signpost for the way forward. The glossary is limited by my knowledge and experience, which mainly derives from the Great britain population context, with some observations in the USA and Europe. It is unlikely, however, that the "country of the art" is avant-garde enough to reach more than a context-specific perspective. In the futurity, if conceptual advances can be achieved, and principles on how to operationalise the concepts agreed, an internationally applicative glossary may emerge.
As a Panjabi built-in Indian raised in Scotland I found the popular UK label "Asian" to depict people similar me as simplistic. In 1984 I learned that this label was embedded in the scientific literature. In publications in the 1980s I took the unusual step of defining Asian, for example, "For the purposes of this study, Asian refers to persons whose beginnings is from the Indian subcontinent". I also tried italicising the word Asian and putting it in quotations to warning the reader to the express apply of the word. In retrospect these steps were insufficient. I realised that in the United States Asian was interpreted as far Eastern Asian populations.i In my writing I started to provide a statement on my use of terms, sometimes as an introductory paragraph as indicated in the appendix.
This newspaper shares my struggle, with the hope that others will help resolve the problems. In 1990, I wrote that an internationally agreed vocabulary was the ideal.2 Sadly, there has been lilliputian progress towards this goal. This paper will also terminate with a plea for work on an internationally agreed glossary. The full bibliography on the journal spider web site (http://www.jech.com/supplemental) gives a sample of the scientific contend.
NEED FOR THE VARIABLES OF ETHNICITY AND RACE IN EPIDEMIOLOGY AND PUBLIC Wellness
The concepts of ethnicity and race in health care and public wellness raise difficult ethical issues, which accept seldom been explicitly considered.three Ethnicity and race are controversial variables in epidemiology and public wellness, including the many branches of these disciplines, and yet they are of central interest.four– 8 The fuel of epidemiology is the analysis of differences in the blueprint of ill health and illness in populations.ix Public wellness policy is largely founded upon such analyses, particularly where differences are caitiff in the sense of unjust. The key epidemiological question is this: why is a affliction more common in one racial or ethnic group of people than some other? For example, why in comparison with the British population as a whole is diabetes and so mutual in people who originate in India but live in Britain, and yet why is colorectal cancer relatively uncommon? Answers to these questions would help empathize ameliorate the causes of disease, and bring do good to all populations. The mysteries behind the myriad of indigenous differences are, however, non easily solved. An emphasis on disease differences, and so advisable to the analysis required in the science of epidemiology, is deeply influential in the health policy and management loonshit where it is sometimes inappropriate for similarities may thing more.x Every bit interest in, and the influence of, enquiry on ethnicity and race is rise it is important that the conceptual footing of the work is sound. The forces that volition stimulate more work on ethnicity, race, and health include the new genetics, the focus on health and health care inequalities, globalisation, migration, and the increase in the move of refugees and asylum seekers.
A Trouble WITH Nuts: CONCEPTS AND TERMINOLOGY RELATING TO ETHNICITY AND RACE
Ethnicity and race
As implied above the concepts of ethnicity and race are beingness hotly debated in epidemiology. Furthermore, there is no consensus on advisable terms for utilise in the scientific study of health by ethnicity and race, and published guidelines on how to use these concepts, from a number of journal, are even so to exist widely adopted.
The word ethnicity derives from the Greek word ethnos, meaning a nation. Ethnicity is a multi-faceted quality that refers to the group to which people belong, and/or are perceived to belong, as a result of sure shared characteristics, including geographical and bequeathed origins, but particularly cultural traditions and languages. The characteristics that ascertain ethnicity are not fixed or hands measured, so ethnicity is imprecise and fluid. Ethnicity differs from race, nationality, religion, and migrant status, sometimes in subtle means, simply may include facets of these other concepts. It follows that investigators who wish to written report ethnicity should collect data on such underlying factors, especially language, faith, country of birth, and family origins.
The measurement, or consignment, of ethnicity is problematic despite much research and argue. Before long, self definition of ethnicity is gaining favour. The problem is that the self assessment changes over time and with context, though this fluidity also has strengths. The currently favoured groupings in the UK, for case, include white, Indian, and Pakistani. Such groupings hibernate massive within grouping heterogeneity, which diminishes the value of indigenous categorisation equally a ways of delivering culturally appropriate health care, and in understanding the causes of ethnic variations in disease. Such broad categories may not fit with self identity of ethnic grouping.
The biological concept of race, whereby human populations were divided into sub-species mainly on the footing of visible physical characteristics, was dominant from the early 19th century to its pass up with the defeat of the Nazis at the end of the 2nd world war.9 None of the numerous racial classifications accept stood the test of time, though there are echoes in electric current classifications. In hindsight, the biological concept of race was ill defined, poorly understood, and invalid and the scientific discipline based on it needed sharper scientific criticism.11 The modern concept of race, specially as utilised past many scholars in the United States, emphasises its social origins rather than its biological basis.12, thirteen In this perspective, race provides a way of defining, for social purposes, populations that look different and have unlike ancestral roots. It is evident, however, than even this social concept of race is ultimately based on physical and hence biological factors, though these are de-emphasised in social epidemiology every bit secondary, unimportant matters. The term race should exist used with caution for its history is one of misuse and injustice. In the study of racism, however, the concept is primal.
While race and ethnicity are different, they are overlapping concepts that are frequently used synonymously, a trend fostered by the increasing use, particularly in the United States, of the chemical compound discussion race/ethnicity. This trend is unfortunate, only purposefully reflects the conceptual and applied bug of separating the two concepts, and traditions of race based assay in the USA. In contrast, in Europe race is beingness abased in favour of ethnicity. Worldwide ethnicity is in the ascendancy.14 Whatever terms authors use, the underlying concepts ought to exist discussed. In practise, a clear definition of what is meant by the terms ethnicity and race in publications is often lacking making it hard to compare studies, particularly internationally. This is not surprising as race and ethnicity are complex, multidimensional concepts changing with time and therefore discipline to varying interpretations. The field has, however, been weakened by inconsistent use of terms and concepts.15
Categories and classifications
To put the concepts of race and ethnicity into operation nosotros need to derive categories, as virtually conspicuously seen in national censuses. Researchers have mostly used such administrative categories for race and ethnicity, even when these are acknowledged by those developing them as having no scientific or anthropological validity.16 This unsatisfactory state of affairs tin can only be remedied if scientists become more than securely involved in the development of categories, and are not but end users. Scientists' use of existing classifications tin can exist interpreted equally an endorsement of their validity. As a minimum, researchers should explain their agreement of the concepts of race or ethnicity and the classification they use (for instance, ane or a mix of ancestry, geographical origin, birthplace, language, organized religion, migration history, name, self identity, observation, etc).
It is easy to forget that categories are merely labels, and no more than a first pace to agreement and defining a person's ethnicity or race. Such labels demand to be recognised equally shorthand for potentially important data. Authors should exist describing the characteristics of the populations they are referring to. For case, the label "South Asian" should not be used if the population referred to is Bangladeshi. Bangladeshis are different from other Southward Asian populations. For instance, Bangladeshi men have an extremely high prevalence of smoking, while another Due south Asian groups of men (particularly Sikhs, but too Hindus) have a low prevalence, a vital fact lost past studies of smoking in "South Asians" combined.17 Popular terminology for ethnic minority populations (Asians, Blacks, Chinese, etc) may suffice for everyday conversation or political commutation simply is also crude for research, and when used needs accurate definition.1, 15
Editors are responsible for ensuring scientific rigour and high quality writing in their journals, yet few journals or books have appropriate policies that are implemented vigorously. This article may spur the JECH to prefer a policy on this matter. Achieving conceptual and terminological accuracy remains an important and challenging goal for authors and editors alike.
Ethnicity and wellness research requires a consideration of concepts and terms beyond those referring to race and ethnicity, for example, culture, acculturation, migration, asylum, refugee, disinterestedness etc—but these are beyond this newspaper and some are covered in other glossaries in JECH.
With this background, I offer a glossary as an example, merely information technology needs development in terms of geographical specificity, scope, and precision. The terms and definitions are an amalgam of the concepts of race and ethnicity. This glossary is an enlarged version of one I have used for some years with some success. Clearly, using the principles evident in the glossary, for instance, giving primacy to self identity while acknowledging related factors such as ancestry and the link to racial classifications, boosted terms for other ethnic and racial groups internationally tin be added. Information technology may exist that contributions from JECH readers will pb to a deeper and longer glossary with truly international applications.
Case OF A GLOSSARY OF TERMS RELATING TO ETHNICITY AND RACE
Asian
Strictly, this label applies to anyone originating from the Asian continent. In practice, this term is used in the U.k. to hateful people with beginnings in the Indian subcontinent. In the Usa, the term has broader pregnant, only is mostly used to denote people of far Eastern origins, for example, Chinese, Japanese, and Filipinos. More specific terms should be used whenever possible.
Asian Indian
A term currently used synonymously with Southward Asian (come across beneath), merely with the important limitation that major South Asian populations such as Pakistani and Bangladeshi may not identify with information technology. This term is existence used in North America to distinguish the population from Native Americans, previously known as American Indians.
African
A person with African ancestral origins who self identifies, or is identified, as African, simply excluding those of other ancestry, for example, European and South Asian. This term is the currently preferred clarification for more specific categories, as in African American, for instance. (In terms of racial classifications, this population approximates to the grouping historically known as Negroid or similar terms.) In practice, Northern Africans from People's democratic republic of algeria, Morocco, and such countries are excluded from this category. (See also Black.)
Afro-Caribbean/African Caribbean
A person of African ancestral origins whose family settled in the Caribbean earlier emigrating and who self identifies, or is identified, as Afro-Caribbean area (in terms of racial classifications, this population approximates to the group known as Negroid or similar terms). (Encounter likewise Blackness.)
Bangladeshi
A person whose ancestry lies in the Indian subcontinent who cocky identifies, or is identified, as Bangladeshi. (Encounter also South Asian.) Between 1947 and 1971 the land known equally Bangladesh was E Islamic republic of pakistan and before that India. At that place is no clear cut equivalent in terms of racial classifications, though historically Northern Indians have been classified every bit white, and some Indian tribes every bit aboriginal. (The racial term Malayan, coined by Blumenbach, is forgotten as purposeless.)
Black
A person with African ancestral origins, who self identifies, or is identified, as Black, African or Afro-Caribbean area (come across, African and Afro-Caribbean). The give-and-take is capitalised to signify its specific apply in this fashion. In some circumstances the word Black signifies all not-white minority populations, and in this employ serves political purposes. While this term was widely supported in the late 20th century there are signs that such support is diminishing.
Caucasian
An Indo-European. This is Blumenbach's 18th century term for the white race of flesh, which he derived from the people who lived in the Caucasus. This term is ordinarily used synonymously with Caucasoid, European, or White. Alone among terms derived from traditional racial classification, Caucasian remains popular in both scientific discipline and everyday linguistic communication.
Chinese
A person with ancestral origins in Mainland china, who self identifies, or is identified, equally Chinese. (In terms of historical racial classifications, Chinese approximate to the grouping known as Mongolian or Mongoloid.)
Ethnicity
The social group a person belongs to, and either identifies with or is identified with by others, every bit a outcome of a mix of cultural and other factors including linguistic communication, diet, religion, beginnings, and physical features traditionally associated with race (come across race). Increasingly, the concept is being used synonymously with race but the trend is businesslike rather than scientific.
Ethnic minority grouping
Ordinarily, but not e'er, this phrase is used to refer to a non-white population. Alternatively, it may be used to describe a specific identifiable group, for instance, gypsy travellers, and less commonly, Irish in the Britain. Some people consider the phrase inaccurate and prefer minority indigenous grouping, simply the two phrases are used synonymously.
Ethnocentrism
The tendency to perceive and interpret from the standpoint of i'due south ain culture. In epidemiology the tendency is reflected in the practice of using the White population every bit the norm or standard (see White).
European
European primarily ways an inhabitant of Europe, or i with ancestral origins in Europe. Finer this is used in epidemiology and public health every bit a synonym for White (meet below). Europeans are placed in the racial classification Caucasian, more recently known as Europid (the latter has not proved popular).
General population
Everyone in the population being studied, irrespective of race or ethnicity.
Hindu
An old, at present seldom used term, for Indians. A term occasionally used more or less synonymously with South Asian. In some countries such as The netherlands the term is used to draw the ethnicity of Surinamese of Indian subcontinent ancestry.
Hispanic
A person of Latin American descent (with some degree of Spanish or Portuguese ancestral origins), who self identifies, or is identified, equally Hispanic irrespective of other racial or ethnic considerations. In the United States this term, often used interchangeably with Latino, is considered an indicator of indigenous origin.
Indian
A person whose ancestry lies in the Indian sub-continent who identifies, or is identified, as Indian (see, Southward Asian). (Major changes to Republic of india's geographical boundaries took identify in 1947 when Pakistan was created.)
Indigenous
This term is normally used to mean a person who belongs naturally to a place in the sense of long term family origins (run across Native). This term is sometimes used to identify the majority population, for example, in the United Kingdom every bit an culling to the word White. In some parts of the world, for example, Australia, the word ethnic is used specifically to refer to aboriginal populations (for example, Aborigene).
Institutional racism (See racism)
Irish
A person whose ancestry lies in Ireland who cocky identifies or is identified, as Irish but this characterization is mostly restricted to the White population (meet, White).
Bulk population
When used in race/ethnicity studies this phrase is usually used as a synonym for White or European.
Minority ethnic group
See ethnic minority group. Increasingly used equally the preferred phrase and replacing ethnic minority group.
Native
Sometimes this give-and-take is used to refer to populations born, or with family origins, in a place (run across indigenous). This was besides a pejorative term meaning populations belonging to a non-European and imperfectly civilised or cruel race, then writers need to have care.
Non-Asian/Non-Chinese, etc
This type of term is rarely defined but self evidently implies those not belonging to the group nether written report. This degree of non-specificity is non recommended.
Occidental
This is a very rarely used term meaning a native or inhabitant of the Occident (West), and effectively a synonym for European, just readers demand to be aware of it as the antonym of Oriental.
Oriental
A term meaning a native or inhabitant of the Orient (East). This term is in occasional use in epidemiology, commonly referring to Far Eastern populations. It is also full general to be useful.
Pakistani
A person whose ancestry lies in the Indian subcontinent who identifies, or is identified, as Pakistani (see Southward Asian). Some Pakistanis may have birth or bequeathed roots in the current territory of India but identify with Islamic republic of pakistan, a country created in 1947.
Race
By historical and common usage the group (sub-species in traditional scientific apply) a person belongs to every bit a result of a mix of physical features such as skin colour and hair texture, which reflect ancestry and geographical origins, equally identified by others or, increasingly, equally cocky identified. The importance of social factors in the creation and perpetuation of racial categories has led to the concept broadening to include a common social and political heritage, making its use similar to ethnicity. Race and ethnicity are increasingly used as synonyms causing some confusion and leading to the hybrid terms race/ethnicity (see Ethnicity).
Racism/institutional racism
A belief that some races are superior to others, used to devise and justify private and commonage actions that create and sustain inequality among racial and ethnic groups. Individual racism is usually manifested in decisions and behaviours that disadvantage small numbers of people. Institutional racism, whereby policies and traditions, sometimes unwittingly, favour a particular racial or ethnic group, may be less obvious but may disadvantage large populations.
Racial prejudice
Negative behavior, perceptions, or attitudes towards one or more ethnic or racial groups.
Reference/command/comparison
This refers to the standard against which a population that is being studied can be compared with to permit an analysis of similarities and differences. The concept is fundamental to epidemiology, and this terminology is preferable to non-specific ethnic or racial terms such as not-Asian, or general or even White population.
South Asian
A person whose ancestry is in the countries of the Indian sub-continent, including Republic of india, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka (in terms of racial classifications, most people in this group probably fit all-time into Caucasian or Caucasoid only this is confusing and is not recommended). This label is usually assigned, for individuals rarely place with it. (See also Indian, Indian Asian, Asian, Pakistani, Bangladeshi.)
Western
A person or populations with ancestry in a region conventionally known as the west, effectively European countries, as distinguished from Eastern or Oriental populations.
White
The term usually used to describe people with European bequeathed origins who identify, or are identified, every bit White (sometimes chosen European, or in terms of racial classifications, the group known equally Caucasian or Caucasoid). The word is capitalised to highlight its specific use. The term has served to distinguish these groups from those groups with skin of other colours (black, yellow, etc), and hence derives from the concept of race simply is used as an indicator of ethnicity. There are bug of poverty and excess disease in subgroups of the White population, which cannot exist unearthed and tackled by using the label White.
Some challenges for epidemiological research on ethnicity, race, and health
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Inclusion of minorities in research
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Description of the purpose of the research
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Definitions of concepts relating to ethnicity and race
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Definition and precision of terms, and indigenous/racial classifications
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Recognition of heterogeneity within ethnic minority groups
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Identification of representative populations
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Ensuring comparability of populations that are to exist compared, requiring socioeconomic data over the life course
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Authentic measurement of the denominators and numerators, in calculating rates
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Ensuring the quality of information, particularly in cross cultural comparability
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Maximising completeness of information collection
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Avoiding misinterpretation of differences that are attributable to confounding variables
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Pinpointing genetic bases of genetic hypotheses
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Proper interpretations of associations every bit causal or non-causal
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Maximising validity and generalisability of the enquiry
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Presentation of research to achieve benefits for the population studied, and avert stigmatisation and racism
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Appropriate action to follow the research
Mixed and other race or ethnic group
This glossary omits a articulate exposition on these terms, which require fresh thought. The increasing importance of the category mixed (ethnicity or race) is self evident. The increasing acceptance of sexual unions that cross ethnic and racial boundaries is adding both richness and complication to most societies. The way to categorise people born of such unions is unclear and the current approaches are inadequate, partly because the number of potential categories is huge. Another category seen in racial classifications is "other", this permitting those not included to place themselves, or exist identified by the observer. In both instances the solution is, about probably, to offer space for gratuitous text responses for people to place themselves. These responses, nonetheless, need to exist coded, analysed, summarised, quantified, and published. Without this individually small-scale, but collectively large, populations remain hidden when policy on ethnic diversity is made.
CONCLUSIONS
As this paper shows even basic work such equally defining terms is problematic, and the challenges are compounded by the pace of social modify, and scientific practice.
Ethnicity is replacing the scientifically limited and somewhat discredited term race in the scientific literature but the latter concept is necessary to study racism.14 The focus of work on race and ethnicity tends to exist on those populations with comparatively adverse wellness outcomes. Clearly, it is not only non-white minority ethnic groups that are in this position. At that place is a example for conceptualising, categorising, and studying more than the White racial and ethnic sub-groups.18 In a futurity glossary there may be far more than accent on White indigenous groups, a trend to be welcomed.
This paper has focused on the concepts and terminology used in the study of the health of minority ethnic and racial groups. It has introduced some of the fundamental debates. There are other problems, for instance, whether international understanding and agreement on these concepts and terms, is achievable, the comparative health of population sub-groups within the populations defined by current categories, and empirical sit-in that the benefits of data by ethnicity and race exceed the costs, in particular that they assistance meliorate the health status of the study populations. The box summarises some of the challenges facing epidemiology in ethnicity and health.
Purpose and context are the prime number determinants of the way that race and ethnicity concepts are applied, classifications are devised and used, and data are analysed and presented.19 This paper has tackled this topic mainly from the perspective of epidemiology and pubic health, and from a Great britain context, though infused past ideas from Due north America and some Northern European countries. The same challenge needs to be tackled from the perspective of other purposes and other nations. Then we would have a foundation for an internationally acceptable and more comprehensive glossary. The task is enormous simply if the subject field is to mature information technology needs to be tackled. In the field of wellness there is a case for leadership from a partnership including the WHO, International Epidemiological Association, and an organisation such as the World Association of Medical Editors.
APPENDIX
An example of an introductory note on ethnicity used by the author in by publications, which may be adjusted by other authors.
A NOTE ON TERMINOLOGY RELATING TO ETHNICITY
There is no consensus on appropriate terms for the scientific study of health by ethnicity, and published guidelines are yet to exist widely adopted. Nosotros have followed general conventions used in the Great britain and, whenever appropriate, the terminology used by the original authors. For example, in the UK the term ethnic minority grouping usually refers to minority populations of non-European origin and characterised by their non-white condition. (We use it this fashion here). The term South Asian refers to populations originating from the Indian Sub-continent, effectively, India, Pakistan, People's republic of bangladesh, and Sri Lanka. White is the term currently used to describe people with European ancestral origins. By ethnicity nosotros mean the group a person belongs to equally a issue of a mix of cultural factors including language, diet, religion, and ancestry.
Acknowledgments
I give thanks the editors of JECH for commissioning this newspaper, and iv bearding referees for their detailed, thoughtful, and critical feedback, which led to a substantial revision. This paper builds on my own and others' piece of work, much of it listed in the bibliography. I acknowledge these debts. Professor Aziz Sheikh gave useful feedback on an earlier draft.
REFERENCES
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Supplementary materials
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Source: https://jech.bmj.com/content/58/6/441